The evolution of the Earth, the Sun, the Moon, planets, and other Essay

The evolution of the Earth, the Sun, the Moon, planets, and other bodies in the universe - Essay Example The last and furthest planet is Pluto, which is a dwarf planet. After the sun, the second brightest object in the sky is the moon. It orbits around the earth once monthly. The impact theory suggests that the moon got formed out of collision between the earth and a very large object, the size of Mars or more. The moon got borne out of the ejected materials from the collision. At the center of the solar system is the sun. The sun is the largest object in the solar system. The sun makes up close to 99.8% of the solar systems mass (Merali & Skinner, 2008). The heat and light shed by the sun makes life possible on planet earth. The planets orbit the sun in paths called ellipses, which are oval shaped. A solar system references a star and all the objects that orbit around it. In our solar system, the sun is the star. The sun as the center of our solar system illuminates the light and heat that make it possible for life within any of the planets (Merali & Skinner, 2008). The planet earth is the only one proven to support life among the system. The planets Mercury and Venus are too close to the sun making them too hot and dry with little atmosphere. The outer planets are also unable to support life because they lack atmosphere, solid ground, oxygen and contain too much

Globalization and Industrialized Countries Essay Example for Free

Globalization and Industrialized Countries Essay As globalization ‘can be seen as being a condition resulting from a long history of international exploration, invasion and colonization, fuelled by economic, military, religious and political interests, and enabled through enormous developments in transport and communications technologies’ (Evans 1997:12). The industrialized environment has transformed drastically since the advent of globalization. Industrialized countries have undertaken extreme restructuring by modifying their means of communication and synchronization of work activities. Globalization has made it promise for companies to work on a real-time basis, whereby products and services are conveyed to the right place at the right time. Since then, globalization and information technology has propagated and has undergone significant improvements. Costs have sustained to decline as these new technologies have emerged. A business not supported by a network of computer systems (primary information technology) is more or less destined to fail, since it will be incapable to compete efficiently in todays complex and dynamic environment (Aiki S. 1991). Companies are not the only ones who have gained from advances in modern information technology. Consumers and interest groups have created strategic alliances and now capable to coordinate their activities as well as exchange ideas and thoughts through a number of database and network systems (Collins J. C. , and J. I. Porras. 1991). For instance, owners of personal computers can subscribe to a computer network and without difficulty retrieve information on the products and corporations on line. Such information can also without problems be transmitted to other users. This huge use of technology by both consumers and companies affects, but the way business is run today. These consumer strategic alliances know no geographical limitations; oftentimes, they are global in nature, particularly among the industrialized nations. As companies can get in enormous profits from the better coordination, greater product elasticity, improved quality, leaner production, and more time-based competitiveness that information technology offers, they also facades the threat that can come from these consumers strategic alliances. For instance, corporations can no longer ignore consumer demands for constant product quality, reliability and respect for the environment, or timely delivery of services. As we move toward more and more advanced technologies, the labor force must be retrained. This training must not only expose workers to the technical matters adjoining the new process but also to the new focus of the organization. They have to be made responsive of the importance of advanced technology in improving work methods and in remaining competitive. Employee compulsion to the new process is imperative. Globalization by itself adds little or no value to an organization. There should be organizational as well as employee dedication to exploit the technology to the maximum (Scott, A. 1996). For instance, with ever-increasing use of computer-integrated manufacturing systems, and the stream of technical documentation that accompanies it, employees have to be skilled of recognizing the critical information at the right time. Once that information is recognized and properly interpreted, there must be an organizational dedication to use the information to make better decisions. Without this potential, the organization cannot take advantage from new technologies. Human resources’ management, therefore, will persist to be a critical factor in the survival of any organization (Schlossberg H. 1992). We sum up the influence of globalization on human resources as follows: †¢ Information technology transforms the mode of communication and work processes. †¢ Custom or standardized operations are replaced with skilled and multi-skilled workers. An extremely trained labor force is desired to manage information technology. †¢ Worker motivation and satisfaction might improve since workers are no longer restricted to routine operations, enjoy management powers, and can contribute to developments in their work processes. (Waters, M. 1995) Globalization also has an impact on the organization itself, as follows: †¢ Organizational reformation is required. This reformation makes the organization flat. Decision-making powers are decentralized. †¢ Communications are better and the organization is capable to make timely responses to its environment. †¢ Introduction of new products and services is improved and varieties of products can be efficiently introduced and marketed by the organization. †¢ The organization is competent to improve its efficiency, quality, and competitiveness. (Scott, A. 1997) Todays advanced technology can, conversely, easily become a basic technology. A rapid increase of new technologies also brings rapid obsolescence of earlier technologies. Policies concerning technology must not be static; they must keep evolving. Stalk (1988) points out that competitive advantage is a persistently moving target . . . The best competitors, the most thriving ones, know how to keep moving and always stay on the cutting edge. Competitiveness A company should be able to evaluate potential new technologies quickly. The goal must be to remain competitive, and effective management of technology is a vital step in achieving this. With an increased focus on customer satisfaction, technology is a decisive means for achieving customer satisfaction. Browning (1990) notes that a learning organization uses technology incessantly to refresh its knowledge of its customers’ wants and to work out new ways of satisfying them. This commitment to be a learning organization needs vast resources, however. For example, Browning also points out that building a learning organization necessitates new skills, clever people and capable machines. Noticeably, technology and human resources should be used together for the organization to stay competitive (Cunningham, S. and Jacka, E. 1996). Barabba and Zaltman (1991) note that hearing the accent of the market and making constructive use of it with respect to the voice of the firm is a learning progression. Essentially, the voice of the market has to be interpreted into facts and tasks that will lead to suitable products or services to satisfy customer needs. This is related to the application of quality function deployment, whereby the organization expands its strategic plans to assure customer needs. Thus, a learning organization should also be a caring organization. As a caring organization, its major objective is to please its stock or stakeholders, its customers, and employees, and also to be collectively responsible. The traditional organization, with the focus on satisfying stockholders alone, is varying to this new form, with a sophisticated stakeholder group (Petrella, R. 1999). Thus, globalization and human resources’ management are recognized as key variables that facilitate an organization to improve its productivity, quality, and competitiveness. A critical constituent is the information technology, which offers both opportunities and challenges. The organization should show understanding to its environment via its policies, and be learning and caring organization, as time and reliability influence competitiveness. Finally, organizations should innovate and constantly move to achieve new targets, particularly in view of todays rapidly developing new technologies (Shields, R. 1997).

Teen Alcohol Abuse Essay -- essays research papers

Alcohol abuse and alcohol dependence are not only adult problems. They also affect many teens between the ages of 12 and 18, even though drinking under the age of 19 is illegal. The topic of alcohol first came up when I was in grade 8 and became even more popular in high school. In high school alcohol was more readily available thanks to absent-minded parents who didn’t hide their alcohol and older students willing to make some quick cash by selling to minors. While some parents may feel relieved that their teen is â€Å"only† drinking, it is important to remember that alcohol is a powerful, mood-altering drug. Not only does alcohol affect the mind and body in unpredictable ways, but teens lack the judgment and coping skills to handle alcohol wisely. Some teenagers are brought up with the attitude that drinking is pure evil. But most of the time this just causes rebellious behavior and makes them want to try it even more, and once they try it they could possibly get addicted. According to associate professor Deborah Deas and assistant professor Suzanne Thomas from the Medical University of South Carolina, more senior high school students use alcohol than any other drug. Once a teenager gets completely smashed they are likely to do it again. Why? Well they will tell you that it’s fun, unless of course they had a really bad experience while drunk. The teens that do have fun will most likely continue drinking. Some teens will experiment and stop, or continue to use occasionally, without significant problems. Others will develop a dependency, possibly moving on to more dangerous drugs and causing significant harm to themselves and possibly others. Sometimes drinking once a week can lead to 4 times a week or more, as I have witnessed wi... ...anti-social personality disorder. These problems can make a person very addicted to drinking because they already have an imbalance of chemicals in their brain. This is especially true for teens because they are still developing and are prone to chemical imbalances. Teens should realize that drinking does not make them cool or help them fit in. Alcohol use is associated with a variety of negative consequences, including increased risk of serious drug use later in life, school failure, and poor judgment puts teens at risk for accidents, violence, unplanned and unsafe sex, and suicide. So what can be done The message is clear: The longer children and teens delay alcohol use, the less likely they are to develop any problems associated with it. That’s why it is so important for parents to inform their children about alcohol and to discuss the topic frequently.

In-Game Ethical Explorations Essay -- Gaming

Ethics help us every day to determine what is â€Å"right† and â€Å"wrong† because they are the values of conduct imposed upon an individual by a larger group, usually society. Ethics has also been referred to as moral philosophy. Ethics and morality have a tendency to be confused and used interchangeably, but there is an important difference that must be noted. Morals define personal character, and therefore are usually unchanged in an individual, while various groups might dictate different ethics. With the emergence of technology in the 21st century, the study of ethics, specifically applied ethics, has increased in the number of relevant subjects. A common example is the case of downloading music illegally. Evidently, it is a crime, but because of a lack of persecution for those who participate in this form of theft, the perception of it is vastly different compared to someone who will physically shoplift an item. Ethics becomes even more complicated when laws are not applicable to the given situation. This gives an opportunity for ethical and moral exploration in an increasingly popular field of technology: video games. Now fully integrated into Western culture, video games are no longer targeted for children only. Young adults have become a growing demographic in the video game world and therefore the demand for more sophisticated games has increased. These gamers are not only looking to have fun, but also for a distraction from reality and an investigation in multiple ethical dilemmas. Historically speaking, with a moderately short life, video games traditionally have not been known to include ethics as a major component to a game, until recently. More games now than ever have content that explores ethics, such as the will to ... ...– as toxic† and the lack of consequences for the simulated crimes can be toxic as well (Ludlow and Wallace 92). Gaming companies like EA, by not enforcing more strict rules and not punishing those that break them, are basically saying: â€Å"The law doesn’t apply unless we feel like enforcing it. If we don’t, there is no law, and anything goes.† The anarchy-like attitude that this message is sending can be dangerous to both the morals of the players committing the crimes and to the business of the game itself, although the popularity of the games have not decreased just yet. Works Cited Ludlow, Peter, and Mark Wallace. The Second Life Herald: The virtual tabloid that witnessed the dawn of the Metaverse. Cambridge: The MIT Press, 2007. 89-107. Print. Cogburn, Jon, and Mark Silcox. Philosophy Through Video Games. New York: Taylor & Francis, 2009. 73-91. Print

Destin Brass Products

Destin Brass Products Co. Case 1. Cost: Material $22 Set-up Labor $0. 48 Direct Labor $6. 4 Machine Depreciation (0. 2 hours per unit *$25 per hour of use) $5 Receiving and Material Handing (78% * $220000/4000) $42. Engineering (50%*$100000/4000) $12. 5 Packing and Shipping (73%*$60000/4000) $10. 95 Maintenance (7%*$30000/4000) $0. 525 Total Cost per Flow Controller $100. 755 2 Cost| Traditional| Revised| ABC| Set-up| 16. 45%| 71. 43%| 71. 43%| Machine Depreciation| 16. 45%| 7. 4%| 7. 4%| Receiving & Handling| 16. 45%| 19. 2%| 78%|Engineering| 16. 45%| 7. 4%| 50%| Packing & Shipping| 16. 45%| 7. 4%| 73%| Maintenance| 16. 45%| 7. 4%| 7%| 0. 4*4000*16/9725*16 = 16. 45% 12*10/168 = 71. 43% 0. 2 * 4000/10800 = 7. 4% 3. Under the traditional cost accounting system, the company allocated the total overhead cost assigned to production on the basis of production-run labor cost. The unit labor cost of flow controllers is $6. 4. The unit overhead cost allocated to it is only $28. 10. When u sing the revised cost accounting system, the company allocated the overhead cost based on machine hours.The machine hour of flow controllers is the lowest among the three products. So whether the company uses direct labor dollars or machine hours, the overhead costs allocated to flow controllers are relatively low since they consume less of this cost basis. When use ABC system, the company allocates the overhead cost on the basis of transactions. Among all the products, the company spends 78% of its receiving and materials handling, 73% of packing and shipping and 50% of engineering efforts on flow controllers.Since flow controller production use most of the transactions, the costs assigned to flow controllers are higher under ABC than they are under the traditional cost accounting system. 4. After using the ABC costing system, more overhead costs are allocated to flow controllers and less to valves and pump. Since other factors are stay the same, the net income for valves and pumps will increase and the net income for flow controllers will decrease. Income does not change.

Cool Science Fair Project Ideas List

Cool Science Fair Project Ideas List Some science fair projects are just more cool than others. Heres a look at some cool science fair project ideas as well as a collection of reader-submitted cool project ideas. Can What You Eat Change Your Eye Color? Some claims have been made that what you eat can ​​change your eye color. You can test this hypothesis yourself. Is ESP Real? Some people claim they can tell who is calling on the telephone before they pick up the phone (and without consulting caller ID). Can they really do it? State a hypothesis and conduct an experiment to test whether your subjects have this form of ESP. Sparking Vegetables Some frozen vegetables have been shown to produce sparks when cooked in the microwave. What types of vegetables produce these sparks? Is spark production dependent on the initial temperature of the vegetables? Does the cooking container play a role in sparking? There is a lot of exploration possible here. Can You Decompose a Disposable Diaper? It is estimated that it will take hundreds or possibly thousands of years for disposable diapers in landfills to decompose. Can you find a way to decompose them? How long does it take a cloth diaper to decompose? Could Your Home Use Wind or Solar Energy? How much wind or sun does it take to use a wind or solar power generation system? How does that compare with the average number of windy or sunny days where you live? Investigate what it would take to start generating and using your own power.

Democratic Spread essays

Democratic Spread essays The issue at hand is of course, are liberty and democracy good for every country. Though, as an American, when I look at the argument I see; it works for us so why cant it work for them? And although it doesn't state so, I believe the underlying question in the article is whether the US should promote democracy through force. The first writer, Michael McFaul, argues; "liberty and democracy are desirable for every country, that the condition exists to increase the number of democratic nations, and that the US can and should use it power to encourage and support liberty and democracy in nations that have never before enjoyed freedom. Michael McFaul sees democracy as appropriate rule for every Nation, Country, and being on earth. Mcfaul believes eliminating Nations without democracy promotes homeland security, and better secures the human race. "No democracies are enemies of the US." "Democracies do not attack each other." "Every foe of the US - Iraq, Iran, Libya, North Korea, Cuba, and (possibly in the near future) China - is a Dictatorship. Mcfaul compares the war against this new "ism" to that of the war against communism. His stand is behind quick military action by the United States. "The US once again must become a revisionist power. We must seek to isolate and destroy our enemies by eliminating their regimes and safe havens. The ultimate purpose of American power is the creation of an international community of democratic states that encompasses every region of the planet." The second writer, Robert D. Kaplan, argues; "Recent experience demonstrates that not all nations have the conditions in which demo cracy can thrive, that some nations prosper without it, and that democracy can be less important in the future." Robert D. Kaplan sees democracy as a successful method of rule within Nations that have the appropriate abilities to cope with it. He does not believe democracy is for every country. Kaplan compares democracy to ...

Coral Reefs Essays

Coral Reefs Essays Coral Reefs Essay Coral Reefs Essay Coral Reefs Review of the Literature What are Coral Reefs? Coral reefs are said to be the foundation for many marine species, and are a crucial support for human life. The coral reef ecosystem is an a diverse collection of species that interact with each other and the physical environment. Coral reefs are the homes of many species including crabs, shrimp, oysters, and clams, foods eaten by humans on a daily basis. Coral reefs are among the most diverse and biologically complex ecosystems on earth, supporting 33% of marine fish species. Research has shown that there exist a host of dangers for these precious species that are living in our very oceans and alongside our seashores, and these are some pertinent questions that need to be addressed in order to establish whether coral reefs are needed for our future existence and to global warming: 1. The habitat of the coral reef? 2. Environmental problems presently facing the habitat 3. What is coral bleaching? 4. Coral bleaching and our global environment? Corals in Crisis The habitat of the Coral Reef According to Dustan, â€Å"Since the late 1970s, reefs across the world have been dying at an unprecedented rate, and it only seems to be getting worse. Dustan points out that in the Florida Keys alone extensive reef monitoring studies conducted by the EPA and other agencies have shown that the reefs lost more than 38% of their living coral cover from 1996 to 1999. Carysfort Reef lost over 90% of its coral cover from 1974 to 1999. The Global Coral Reef Monitoring Network, the single largest coral reef monitoring effort in the world, reported in October 2000 at the 9th International Coral Reef Symposium in Bali, Indonesia, that of all the reefs they monitor worldwide, 27 percent have been lost and another 32 percent could be lost in the next 20-30 years (Pockley 2000). Coral Reefs and our Environment The coral bleaching response to climate change first appeared on the policy stage in the summer of 1987, coincident with a major internatio nal episode of bleaching, increasing concern about global warming, and one of the warmest years on record in Washington, DC. The Senate held hearings on coral bleaching and testimony reported preliminary scientific evidence that linked bleaching with unusually warm seasonal seawater temperatures. Corals bleach when stresses, including high temperatures, stimulate the coral animal to expel its intra-cellular single-celled plant symbionts, which are characteristic of all reef-building corals and critical to coral health. As the color of corals is determined in large part by the plant cells, the corals appear to bleach. Bleaching does not immediately kill corals and they are capable of recovery if the stress is removed, but if it is prolonged corals may die. Coral Bleaching and Our Global Environment Human activities influence coral reefs in a variety of ways, but the general categories of disturbances make a remarkably short list: 1. Climate change including ocean warming, sea level rise, and increased atmospheric CO2.. 2. Land-based sources of pollution, including land destabilization and sedimentation, sewage disposal, toxic pollution, and pathogens. 3. Over-fishing, including both the consequences of removal of fishes from reefs and the damage of fishing techniques and gears. Climate change is the only global influence in the list and is the umbrella under which all other stresses to reefs operate. Land-based sources of pollution are both regional and local. For example, a significant proportion of marine pollution is aerosols and runoff originating far from the ocean. Over-fishing is largely a local problem and responds to relatively simple if not easily implemented management regimes. Finally, note that these disturbances are characteristic not only of coral reefs but any coastal ocean area near human populations, according to Ogden. (2002) Coral bleaching isn’t the only detrimental effect of climate change on coral reefs. Prolonged seasonally warm temperatures stress corals and can increase the growth rate of the potentially pathogenic microorganisms responsible for coral diseases. Increased CO2 in the atmosphere lowers the saturation state of calcium carbonate (CaCO3) in the ocean. This has been shown to decrease coral reef calcification and may over time be an even more important factor than bleaching in the global adjustment of coral reefs to climate change as stated in Ogden’s research at Florida Institute of Oceanography. (2002) In summary, the world beneath sea is still a mystery for many of us. Its an entirely different world, the beauty of the ocean’s creatures, plants, vegetation, coral reefs are precisely a pleasant sight. The beautiful coral reefs known and loved by the entire world are rapidly moving towards their extinction due to certain disturbance in the earths climate. Considered as one of the richest sources for biodiversity; coral reefs are of numerous usages to mankind but unfortunately they are also one of the most abandoned marine animals. Not only did they benefit the sea creatures that inhabit them but also the environment and people by providing them Provide abundance of food and medicine material for research work. Protect coast from wave impact and storms. Tourist attraction. The extinction of coral reefs will have a disastrous effect on population that relies on them, mostly the fish and other marine creature that depend completely on reefs for their survival. Moreover, it would leave the seashore open to the effects of storm surges and may result in revenue loss from tourism. References Dustan, P. , 1999: Testimony Presentation on Coral Reef Conservation Issues at the Senate Subcom mittee Hearing on Oceans and Fisheries. Washington, DC. Coral Reefs under Multiple Stresses in an Era of Climate Change: John C. Ogden; Director, Florida Institute of Oceanography Professor of Biology, University of South Florida Pockley, P. , 2000: Global Warming Identified as Main Threat to Coral Reefs. Nature, 407 (6807), 932. Coral Reefs under Multiple Stresses in an Era of Climate Change: John C. Ogden; Director, Florida Institute of Oceanography Professor of Biology, University of South Florida Karan Singh, V. (2008, August 23). Coral Reef Dilemma!. Retrieved September 8, 2008, from http://ezinearticles. com/? Coral-Reef-Dilemma! id=1435286

Case study Fetal abnormality Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Case study Fetal abnormality - Essay Example One theory according to Marco is that the doctor should consider the emotional stability of Jessica and he should tell her once he is sure that she can receive the diagnosis. Dr. Wilson’s theory is that it is an obligation for the doctor to inform his patient their true diagnosis immediately to facilitate proper decision making. Therefore, it was appropriate for him to inform Jessica on the condition of the fetus and give his advice of which he recommended an abortion. He argues that his obligation is to Jessica and not to Marco and that it is important that Jessica knows her condition so that he can advice her accordingly. Maria on the other hand thinks that a mother should not terminate a pregnancy despite the condition of the fetus. She pleads with Jessica not to terminate the pregnancy and let God decide. Jessica does not have a particular stand, she cannot decide between terminating the pregnancy, and her religious believe that life is sacred. All these theories are at some point confusing Jessica in her decision regarding what to do. Marco is Jessica’s husband and although after the pleading with the doctor he did not change his mind, the doctor thought he was worth listening. This is despite the fact that his reasoning did nothing to persuade the doctor to act differently and wait before telling Jessica the truth about her diagnosis. The doctor’s theory has a lot of weight in the decision-making since he is the expert and knows the implication of continuing with the fetus with abnormalities. Marias thinking also can influence on what Jessica decides considering Jessica is also a religious person and that is why she thought of calling her priest. Personally, I am more at ease with the doctor’s theory that it is better that Jessica Knows the condition from the doctor because it is ethically right she knows. The doctors knows the challenges that children born with conditions like what Jessica

Political Multimedia Assignments Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Political Multimedia Assignments - Essay Example Although they use the fanatical right as a way of gaining the support of people who are not within the upper 1% in wealth in the nation, the Republican Party still stands on its original platform of less regulation and more freedoms and rights for corporations. This is in direct conflict with the needs of workers, but workers have flocked to the Republican Party due to fear of losing the rights they have or in support of radical ideas about the world concerning religion, guns, or abortion. This is corporate greed at its worst. What has happened as a consequence is that the irrational and unreasonable now have a voice and official support. Silver is placing the consequences of such hard-lined campaigning for ‘sides’ into context in order to show that people are becoming more about their political party than about the issues due to the polarization. Silver suggests that the Republican Party has now created a sort of vacuum in which they now must continue their fanaticism i n order to maintain those they convinced to join them. Instead of being able to come closer to the middle, in order to keep those they convinced to join they are stuck well over to the right. ... The Republican Party remade itself to be the party of the people through giving voice to radicalized beliefs. Now they are stuck with it. The Story of Stuff â€Å"The Story of Stuff† shows how little control consumers have in what they buy and what they are exposed to from their stuff. It also shows the blatant manipulation that all consumers experience. Most consumers know they are being manipulated, but still play into consuming more and more goods. The need to consume resources and then throw them away, according to the video, was designed. What does that mean for American society? It seems that it started with 19th century colonialism where one state felt they had the right to ‘claim’ another state and consume its resources. It could go back to the time of exploration where lands such as the Americas were claimed for Spain or England, but those times still allowed for the natural consumption of resources. Although, the destruction of buffalo for their hides by those European Ancestors who sought to claim the American West who then left the meat to rot in large fields of blood might be seen as one of the beginnings of this problem. The European American habit of conquering and stripping a land from its indigenous people, leaving them without the means to sustain their cultures as they once were is at the heart of this problem, and it began with those who claimed the right to colonialism. According to the video, Americans literally consumer 99% of what they buy which will be disposed of by the end of its first year of use. This is literal consumption. Every week as the trash is thrown out is seems that there are more and more quantities of

Why is Family Important Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Why is Family Important - Research Paper Example ly is a combination of the people, their individual personalities, their financial and emotional relations and interdependence, and how they interact with each other -Families provide legal protection to the right of inheritance -Family history in medicine is a useful tool for diagnosis and treatment planning -Positive families lead to creation of positive individuals, who accomplish more as individuals -Families give emotional strength when positive relations exist, and create important examples for children to follow as adults -Controversy exists between schools of thoughts in individualism and collectivism over the importance and role of family CONCLUSION Families in all of its form remain an essential unit of society. a positive family environment translates in to well protected and emotionally sound individuals, who become better contributors to society The current debate in sociology regarding family and family systems is far more complex, with its implications even more so. Th e most important question that has risen is the simple question whether family is important in human society or not. Individualism and collectivism come at a deadlock here, for each group stands to demonstrate two different concepts of self and roles in societies. Family sadly suffers from the tug and pull of these two ideologies, which is easily seen by the many new family systems that have currently developed. Therefore, the most important question that arises before impact of different family systems is whether family is important in current societies. Although appearing as a simple term, the word family is often the most difficult to describe and define. This is because the word family has come to identify many close emotional, physical and biological social interactions, which take...Family sadly suffers from the tug and pull of these two ideologies, which is easily seen by the many new family systems that have currently developed. Therefore, the most important question that ar ises before impact of different family systems is whether family is important in current societies. Although appearing as a simple term, the word family is often the most difficult to describe and define. This is because the word family has come to identify many close emotional, physical and biological social interactions, which take different meanings in separate cultures (Allan and Allan, 1999, pp 21). The definitions therefore, vary, depending upon the context in which family is defined.

European Union, how successful was it at creating a single market Essay

European Union, how successful was it at creating a single market - Essay Example A free trade area is a form of economic integration wherein all barriers to trade, not only tariffs, are removed among participating nations although each nation maintains its trade barriers with other nations who are not members of the free trade area (Salvatore, 327). This was the situation in 1960 in the European Free Trade Association (EFTA) organised by the United Kingdom, Austria, Denmark, Norway, Portugal, Sweden and Switzerland (Salvatore, 328). A customs union provides no tariffs or other barriers to trade among member nations of the customs union and, in addition, the custom union harmonises trade policies with the rest of the world (Salvatore, 328). According to Salvatore, this was the status in 1957 of West Germany, France, Italy, Belgium, the Netherlands, and Luxembourg (328). A common market goes further than a customs union by â€Å"also allowing the free movement of labour and capital among member nations† (Salvatore, 328). According to Salvatore, much of Europ e became a common market in 1993 (328). Finally, an economic union is a significant advancement from a common market because in addition to the free flow of labour and capital among the members of the union, the economic union unifies the fiscal and monetary policies of member nations of the economic union (Salvatore, 328). Fiscal integration in the European Union is not immediately apparent. However, one good evidence of monetary integration is the launching of the euro as â€Å"the common currency of more than 300 million Europeans on 1 January 1999† (Europa, â€Å"The history of the European Union†).1 A study of Kocenda and colleagues in 2008 indicated that the monetary union within the European Union did not â€Å"encourage fiscal convergence among its members† (1). Thus, viewed from the perspective of advancement from a preferential trade arrangement and growing into a free trade area, then into a customs union, then into a common market, and finally into a n economic union, the formation of the European Union itself can be credited as a solid achievement in the creation of a single market. However, it is also possible to see the European Union as an act of protectionism of member countries of Europe against the rest of the world. In this sense, one can also view the formation of the European Union as a possible obstacle to the creation of a single market worldwide: a group of nations operating as a bloc or club within the World Trade Organisation (WTO). 2.0. Mission of the European Union The European Union, however, is more than an economic union. It is a political union as well among countries sharing a common vision and objectives. Europa, the official website of the European U

Civil Rights Movement in America Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2750 words

Civil Rights Movement in America - Essay Example When it did, he was careful not to lose support from southern politicians by enforcing overly-liberal policies (Patterson, 2001, p. 122-123). This Democratic lack of action was still apparent over thirty years later when President Clinton placed the onus for reform on individual Americans, calling for change in "our minds and our hearts," rather than expending federal funds and energy to bring about change (Klinkner, 1999, p. 27). As a result, government interest in reform has disintegrated while its efforts for populace control have grown "through increased spending on the military, police, prison building, and mechanisms for surveillance" (Giroux, 2004, p. 212). When the government has acted on civil rights, it has often been a pale or nonexistent effort. In the summer of 1997, Clinton formed him Presidential Initiative on Race as a think-tank on how to address race and racial inequality. Steven A. Holmes quoted panel member Thomas Kean in The New York Times as stating, "There is a timidity on this question [of race] We were not encouraged to be bold." (as cited in Klinkner, 1999, p. 26-27). Clinton showed his concern for reform in word, but not in deed. Similarly, the Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD) was formed following the passage of Title VIII to receive housing complaints, but was not given to authority to act on them. This allowed the government to "do something" about unfair housing without any real action (Judd, 1999, p. 136). In fact, according to Giroux, the overall effect of modern conservatism has been to silence "any discussion of race in mainstream national politics by insisting on colorblind public policy" (2 004, p. 179). There are several instances in which the federal government has specifically shirked its responsibility to remedy racial inequalities. This was very apparent during the Reagan administration, when the momentum of the Civil Rights Movement came "to a standstill" (Fairclough, 2001, p. 332). Rather than citing governmental intervention as a possible solution, Regan claimed that it had been a problem, and went on to denounce student busing and attempt to eliminate the Department of Education (Patterson, 2001, p. 171), successfully pulling federal government away from domestic issues that sorely needed attention. His administration further claimed that "big government handouts had corrupted black communities by creating generations of cheats characterized by laziness, drug addiction, sexual excess, and a general taste for criminality and violence" (Giroux, 2004, p. 189). Even the Democratic Clinton administration rolled back government responsibility with its budget compromise of 1997, in which Clinton cut Medicare and Medicaid and endorsed tax cuts that mainly benefited wealthy Americans. In this one act, Clinton had practically undone the reform created by Roosevelt's New Deal (Klinkner, 1999, p. 11). Presidential administrations, however, have not been alone in turning their backs on racial equality; the judicial branch, since its rightward drift beginning with Nixon's presidency, has also negated the government's role in domestic

European Union, how successful was it at creating a single market Essay

European Union, how successful was it at creating a single market - Essay Example A free trade area is a form of economic integration wherein all barriers to trade, not only tariffs, are removed among participating nations although each nation maintains its trade barriers with other nations who are not members of the free trade area (Salvatore, 327). This was the situation in 1960 in the European Free Trade Association (EFTA) organised by the United Kingdom, Austria, Denmark, Norway, Portugal, Sweden and Switzerland (Salvatore, 328). A customs union provides no tariffs or other barriers to trade among member nations of the customs union and, in addition, the custom union harmonises trade policies with the rest of the world (Salvatore, 328). According to Salvatore, this was the status in 1957 of West Germany, France, Italy, Belgium, the Netherlands, and Luxembourg (328). A common market goes further than a customs union by â€Å"also allowing the free movement of labour and capital among member nations† (Salvatore, 328). According to Salvatore, much of Europ e became a common market in 1993 (328). Finally, an economic union is a significant advancement from a common market because in addition to the free flow of labour and capital among the members of the union, the economic union unifies the fiscal and monetary policies of member nations of the economic union (Salvatore, 328). Fiscal integration in the European Union is not immediately apparent. However, one good evidence of monetary integration is the launching of the euro as â€Å"the common currency of more than 300 million Europeans on 1 January 1999† (Europa, â€Å"The history of the European Union†).1 A study of Kocenda and colleagues in 2008 indicated that the monetary union within the European Union did not â€Å"encourage fiscal convergence among its members† (1). Thus, viewed from the perspective of advancement from a preferential trade arrangement and growing into a free trade area, then into a customs union, then into a common market, and finally into a n economic union, the formation of the European Union itself can be credited as a solid achievement in the creation of a single market. However, it is also possible to see the European Union as an act of protectionism of member countries of Europe against the rest of the world. In this sense, one can also view the formation of the European Union as a possible obstacle to the creation of a single market worldwide: a group of nations operating as a bloc or club within the World Trade Organisation (WTO). 2.0. Mission of the European Union The European Union, however, is more than an economic union. It is a political union as well among countries sharing a common vision and objectives. Europa, the official website of the European U

Cases Of Plagiarism And Its Consequences Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Cases Of Plagiarism And Its Consequences - Essay Example Also, it was detected that only the last edition of her book contained a thanksgiving paragraph for Taggart’s in the preface although nothing was written about him in the preface of the first edition. Goodwin had been ousted from the university but the matter was settled very quietly between Goodwin and Taggart with the latter taking no strict action against the accused (Crader). There had been a similar case of plagiarism two years back where Stephen Ambrose, a historian was accused of copying in his book â€Å"The Wild Blue†. He had copied innumerable lines including some entire texts from Thomas Childers â€Å"Wings of Morning†. Some important phrases from Childers book like ‘glittering like mica’ and ‘up, up, up’ has been repeated word by word in â€Å"The Wild Blue† and not been put in quotation marks. Also, he has not done proper referencing and mentioned Childers only in bibliography and footnotes. However, Ambrose escaped the accusation unscathed as Guilders didn’t take any action against him for plagiarism (Barnes). The consequence of plagiarism can be judged only on the basis that whether it was intended or unintended. The above articles indicate that the works done by Ambrose and Goodwin revealed intended plagiarism since the subjects were similar to the books they plagiarized. However, no action was taken against them and such a result sounds unfair as strict actions should be taken against such people. Although Goodwin was ousted from her University, she received several accolades for her work later on from the same university. So it can be said that justice had not been done and created a wrong example for students and authors alike.

Neoliberal Globalization Essay Example for Free

Neoliberal Globalization Essay In the article â€Å"Neoliberal Globalization† by Dan Clawson, the author contended that the advocates of neoliberalism tried to integrate this into globalization. He said that they are continuously attempting to make policies favorable to companies’ profits. Unfortunately, these do not make corresponding benefits and compensations to its workers that trigger labor crisis in the United States. Clawson further argued that neoliberalism should not be misunderstood as an inevitable phenomenon to accompanied globalization. Take for example the internet. Since the internet is a â€Å"powerful force† that connects people in one region to the world, it is also considered as the best contributor in globalization. In order to take that advantage, companies today tried to adapt a neoliberal perspective on the use of the internet to make more profit for themselves. Even so, the internet is for everyone in the world whether a person has wealth and power or not. In addition to this, the concept of globalization of the internet is very different from the perspective of the World Trade Organization (WTO) on globalization. Their belief is to generate most profits for business, much to their interest. The neoliberals believe that the their version of globalization has generated many profits and has made individuals wealthy. Yes, businesses nowadays are indeed making more profit than before because of neoliberal strategies. However, the wealth has been distributed unequally; in other words, wealth has been concentrated in certain business people. Clawson demonstrates this wrong argument of neoliberals by providing two different economy periods namely, the welfare state and the neoliberal state. Clawsons argument questioned why the average family income during the welfare state period was doubled compared to the slow increase during the neoliberalism period, given that the neoliberal oriented economy brought prosperity to the state. There was a noticable increase in income during the later period, but these increases were made by women workers and mostly distributed to the top people in the business. The Neoliberal version of globalization has then resulted in the continuous gap widening between the average workers and the top executives. With this, how does neoliberal globalization damage our economy? The damages are serious and concentrated in the working class population. The more international trade grows, the higher income inequality becomes. This causes more people to lose their jobs because of the companies’ decision to relocate to other countries to cut costs. Many of them relocate their manufacturing jobs to China and the service sector jobs to India. This is the main reason why most of the products we avail are from China, and the servicing jobs are in India. All of these are causes of the companies’ downsizing and the increased unemployment. Clawson proposed some solutions to the neoliberal form of globalization. He said that if the workers formed a union, the capital would be controlled, and there would be a decrease in the relocation. I agree with this thinking of Clawson. Abolishing the boundless rights corporations have in relocation is an effective way to maintain the workers’ rights. Unfortunately, the process was more complicated than what Clawson suggested. Another alternative was the regulation of labor conditions through organizations, such as the United Nations or the WTO. Clawson proposed that WTO should focus more on the workers rights and environment, and not only the company profits. WTO was established to protect organizational profits. If the right to regulate labor condition is granted to the WTO, there is a possibility that the WTO operate favorably to generate corporations’ profits. Clawson’s neoliberal version of globalization brought labor’s crisis in the United States. He demonstrated these by providing many case examples. However, his proposals did not address possible obstacles, which may follow as a result of those solutions or in the process of formulating those solutions.

The integration process of immigrants in Spain

The integration process of immigrants in Spain Immigration Spain Emigration A social analysis of the integration process of immigrants in Spain. The way in which ‘the problem’ of immigration in Spain affects the integration of immigrants. Over the last fifteen years, Spain has gone from being a country of emigration to a country of immigration. In recent years few European countries have experienced as dramatic a rise in immigration as Spain. Spain has been among the most open countries in the European Union, admitting 650,000 immigrants last year alone and granting residency permits to 560,000 more who were in the country illegally. Although the percentage of immigrants is still relatively low compared to other European countries (6.1% of the population in 2005) the growth of immigration experienced over the last five years has led experts to consider the country as a â€Å"new immigration centre.† The economic and historical connections with North Africa and South America have been the principal triggers of immigration flows, with almost 2/3 of immigrants coming from outside the EU. Europeans also represent a large number of immigrants in Spain. Attracted to the Costa del Sol’s climate and low cost of living, many come to retire. There are three basic causes for this substantial change in the position of Spain as a new centre of immigration. The first is the continuous economic development of the country and the fact that it belongs to one of the most developed regions in the world, the EU. Secondly, Spain is considered as an alternative to other European countries with high levels of immigration where there now exist increasingly strong restrictions on immigration, especially those originating from outside Europe. Thirdly, Spain’s geographical situation means that it has become the ‘back door’ for immigrants’ intent on reaching the rest of Europe. The significant increase of the foreign population since 2000 has resulted in a growing awareness that immigration is a structural phenomenon and Spain: a multicultural country. Recent Spanish opinion polls reveal the distortion between the reality and nationals’ perception of the extent of this immigration. In the book ‘Europeos e Inmigrantes,’ the authors study local’s opinion on immigration and conclude with the following results: approximately 55% of Spanish society perceive Spain as having ‘a lot’ of immigrants- though not too many- and 25% of them consider the number of immigrants to be too high. The number of immigrants, but more specific still the presence of immigrants, is suggested to be a ‘problem.’ This study will be looking at the perception of immigration as a ‘problem,’ and the consequence of this perception on the integration of immigrants in Spain. I am interested in the integration of immigrants on a social level: the ways in which social constructions of the ‘other’ are reflected in the social integration process of the immigrant population. In the end, I hope to make sense not just of immigrants’ marginal status in Spain; but also how the concept of culture and society shapes the integration process. Despite common belief that Spain is being met by an invasion of newcomers, the percentage of immigrants to the total national population remains the lowest within the EU. By 2001, immigrants in Spain made up 2.5% of the population, contrasted with 4.2% for the UK, 4.3 for the Netherlands, 5.6 for France, and 8.9 for Germany. Overall, the European average is three times higher than the Spanish average. Despite the fact that illegal immigrants are seen as a threat to the growing population, illegal entrance into Spain counts for only 4% of the immigrants entering legally. Yet today, immigration is among the top three mentioned problems and has been referred to as a cultural problem. The media has had, and continues to have, a great influence on the nation’s interpretation of immigration and the prominence of immigration in national politics and people’s consciousness reflects the extent to which the subject of immigration is covered by Spanish media. No other medium is able to send a determined message out to the masses, or has so much power as to make everyone value their freedom of speech. Those who have studied ‘public opinion’ have said, â€Å"Although people think they have formulated their own opinion, in actual fact their opinion and argument is more or less echoed from a favoured political leader or party.† National newspapers go as far as to include a section on ‘the immigration problem’ aimed at keeping track of the number of illegal immigrants apprehended by the police. The Spanish newspaper, ‘El Paà ­s’ uses headlines such as: ‘Interceptados 76 inmigrantes en las costas de Granada y Canarias en las à ºltimas horas, and frequently describes the arrival of ‘nueva oleadas de pateras que intentan alcanzar Espaà ±a. On television, the Spanish public are supplied with regular images of illegal immigrants attempting to enter the country illegally. The constant focus on immigration in political discourse and in the mass media has created a sense of migratory pressure amongst the public, a sense that there are floods of people banging on the border doors to get in. â€Å"Las puertas de Europa Espaà ±a y nueve paà ­ses europeos han acordado establecer un operativo para patrullar toda la zona del à frica atlà ¡ntica susceptible de ser punto de origen de pateras y cayucos que viajan hacia Europa y, sobre todo, hacia Canarias, que acusa casi cada dà ­a la presià ³n de esta avalancha migratoria.† This pressure is fuelled by both a fear of security and a fear of immigrants affecting the Spanish labour market (which I will discuss later on). This fear is often translated into panic and irrational conclusions for those ignorant of the reality of the situation. Evidence of illegal immigrants in Spain has created confusion between attitudes towards illegal and legal immigrants, and often the two groups are treated as one. Following the 9/11 tragedy, race stereotypes have once again become commonplace and through pure ignorance and fear, immigrants are seen as a threat to the public’s safety, often being associated with Islamic fundamentalism. Public insecurity due to misinformation has manifested itself in violence and xenophobic feelings against the immigrants. An example of this took place in 2000, in El Ejido (Andalucia), where locals violently attacked newly settled immigrants, following a young girl’s murder by a Moroccan. The dissemination of these negative perceptions has helped conjure up a sensation of invasion, which does not mirror the reality of the situation. The reality of the situation (which I have already discussed) is that this existing fear is unjustified. It is a representation of the ignorance surrounding the perception of immigration linking the race of an immigrant group with the safety of a country. Immigration has also been considered a threat to the structure of the labour market. During the 1980s and 1990s, when immigration to Spain was at its highest, the country was experiencing a profound economic crisis characterized above all by high levels of unemployment. The presence of immigrants and the misconception that they were invading the Spanish labour market, added further tension to the relationship between the two groups, and was therefore considered an economic and social problem. â€Å"More than any other factor, unemployment is generally seen as the root cause behind the electoral successes of the radical Right across Europe and is credited with casing an existence of a negative, anti immigrant attitude in Spain.† Immigration in Spain has also been treated as a cultural problem â€Å"where the idea of having immigrants in the country is not perceived as a positive multicultural phenomenon but as a threat to the integrity of the Spanish cultural identity.† The Spanish fear that the increasing presence of other national cultures will overshadow and stifle their own traditions. The immigrants have brought their own culture to Spain, which they expect to be respected and recognised so that they may practice their traditions in harmony with the rest of society. Spaniards fear that the integration of immigrants will entail the growth of alien religious infrastructures and more conflict between locals and immigrants. The social integration of Muslims in particular is perceived as difficult, because of the demands for their own religious infrastructure. The constructions of mosques render the development of a multicultural society even more obvious. Since the terrorist attacks in Madrid 2004, Islam has been presented as an alien civilization, with mosques feared as centres of terrorism. This fear often translates into irrational conclusions. â€Å"As it generally does in other European countries, the association of North Africans with Islamic fundamentalism, terrorism and crime tends to breed hostility and suspicion from the Spanish public.† In summary, the immigration problem revolves around an insecurity bred by the sense of invasion. People feel threatened by the implications of immigrants in the labour market, and what ‘integration’ really entails for the culture and society dynamics of Spain. I am now going to address the concept of integration and how the perception of immigration already discussed has affected this process. In order to assess how this is affecting the integration process I will be looking at the topic from an anthropological perspective. Among those who attempt to define the concept of integration, there is considerable disagreement. In the context of Spanish immigration it has taken on many meanings, some implying that it is reached when the immigrant is able to ‘fit in,’ others suggesting that it hinges on natives’ open-mindedness and tolerance, and still others prioritising the accessibility of social services and basic necessities. Often, the term is simply used as a synonym for settlement, or establishing physical and social roots. A Spanish social scientist and immigration expert defines it this way: ‘We can say that immigrants are integrated into a host society when they do not face additional obstacles due to their foreign origin in the main aspects of their social, economic, and family life, when compared to the native-born population.’ Law plays a central role in the immigrants’ integration on all levels and has been seen as â€Å"formally codifying them as different at several levels.† Spain had several attempts at immigration legalisation: the first, ‘the Ley de Extranjeria,’ focussing primarily on control over immigrants rather than integration. Immigration laws designated some people as non-citizens with a limited set of rights and privileges. Others were declared to be illegal and unwelcome altogether and those who did achieve legal status found their position unstable, as they are vulnerable to frequent changes in legislation and status. When in 1998 the issue of integration was finally addressed, the focus was still on the integration of ‘non-EU foreigners’ rather than the immigrant group as a whole, stigmatising the non-EU immigrants as the problem group. Perez, in his article, â€Å"Spain: Forging an Immigration Policy,† goes as far as to say that the ‘Law on the rights and Freedoms of Foreigners in Spain and their Integration’ passed in January 2000, was not so much ‘because of the law’s acknowledgement of immigrant rights but because of its conception of immigration as a permanent phenomenon.’ Still today immigrants struggle against policy restrictions. Despite the common belief that immigrants create problems in the Spanish labour market, the reality of the situation is that the immigrant work force is largely responsible for Spain’s economic growth. This growth, over the last decade, has been among the fastest in the EU. â€Å"It is not a coincidence that the strong economic growth and increase in employment rate has increased with the arrival of immigrants into Spain.† Having said this, statistics show that in 2006 the unemployment rate for Spaniards was 8% compared to 12% for foreigners. The lack of facilities for Spanish employers to contract foreigners and the difficulty such employers face accessing Spanish labour has resulted in irregular immigration flows and labour markets. In addition to the disparity between the unemployment rates for Spanish and Immigrant workers, there is also a difference in the nature of work. The restructuring of the Spanish economy after the accession to the European Community has resulted in an increase in the demand for labour in sectors of the economy where nationals no longer wish to work. Spanish laws make it virtually impossible to gain admission as legal residents outside of the quota system that is largely confined to those willing to work in agriculture, domestic help, and construction, i.e. those sectors where wages and working conditions are inadequate to attract sufficient local workers. These laws thus guarantee that immigrant workers labour under conditions that are shunned by most of the working class, an arrangement that furthermore highlights their economic alienation and their exclusion from reasonable housing, health care and other basic necessities further distancing there chances on reaching integration. Furthermore, there is little stability for immigrants in the labour market with most of them receiving only temporal jobs. There is also a significant difference in wages. It has been noted that non-communitarians earn 33% less than Spanish citizens. These forms of discrimination have resulted in the exploitation of undocumented workers: considerably lower payments, a lack of safety standards, labour security and worker rights. One of the main problems with the way in which immigration is perceived in Spain is that not much is known about the immigrant as an individual. Because of this lack of knowledge, realities are distorted and often the outsider is assumed to be the culprit for society’s ills. â€Å"In endeavouring to reduce environmental complexity to a manageable size, when bombarded with environmental stimuli, untested cognitive short-cuts come to be employed which have a tendency to become self fulfilling.† In order for immigration to be perceived accurately by any social group there must be a basis of knowledge; not hearsay. As most of the media coverage on the immigrant population relates to violence and delinquency, it is understandable why the average Spaniard, adopts a defensive stance. To gain an accurate, or at least fair representation of the immigrant population, these negative portrayals ought to be contested with representations from the minority groups. A lack of organisation and funds are said to explain the lack of minority media produced in Spain. Whether this is the case, or whether the lack of initiative to produce a platform for the minority groups to speak out from is the manifestation of another social inequality. The danger of a ‘general’ perception of the immigrant group is that incorrect assumptions are made and stereotypes formed. Generalisations on immigrants’ nationalities create a belief that each nation has one culture shared by all inhabitants. Similar generalisations are made towards the second generation of immigrants. The children of the immigrants, who have never immigrated, and who were born in Spain are assumed to be of foreign origin. These stereotypes also include the concept that others’ cultural traits are strange and not worthy of exploring because they are not necessary to the already comfortable, established concepts that the society possesses. The cultural traits that cause the most ‘problems’ are those most different, usually those from non-European countries. This is because, in everyday life, they are the most conspicuous (with regards to the fact that in Spain the colour of one’s skin is still associated with being ‘foreign’) reminding nationals that Spain is becoming a multicultural country. Spanish researcher and anthropologist, Damian Omar Martinez, explores the concept that on a social level, non- European immigrants are discriminated against more because they are considered further away from integration: the integration that sees immigrants conforming to the Spanish way of life. With the transformation of the European Union, the free movement of Europeans between borders means that to a certain extent relationships between different European cultures are less tense. European citizens are increasingly viewed as being part of a European community. The borders between themselves and ‘the others’ have almost been extended up to the exterior borders of Europe. McGrance argues that there is a distinct Western thought process. He argues that: ‘there is the superior Western culture, and then there are all the rest as contrast. A sharp divide is created, with epistemological privilege always on the side of the West. With these analyses in mind, one realises the extent of the difficulties immigrants face in becoming integrated into Spanish society. Adding to the discussion on integration and what impedes this process for immigrants, I am interested in how a national population is able to control a minority population. When talking of integration, it is impossible to say when an immigrant is fully integrated as an essential part of this process is determined by non- controllable factors such as the native population’s response. It seems the first step to any kind of integration for minority groups (the immigrants), is acceptance from the majority (the nationals). However, when integration can be defined as a concept that calls for the absence of racism and tolerance for minority groups, the question is raised as to whether it is integration we are talking about or tolerance. Is the immigration in Spain a case of ‘integrating’ immigrants or merely ‘tolerating’ them? If it is a case of tolerating immigrants, there is little hope of integration for immigrants on a social level. This brings me onto the concepts of ‘society’ and ‘community,’ which seem to influence the process of integration of immigrants. Calavita writes that the concept of culture and community is difficult to define. She quotes Walzer’s attempt at defining the term: â€Å" that at a minimum a community consists of like-minded members, with some special commitment to one another and some special sense of their common life.† The term community deals with the concept of belonging and not belonging: the member whom is accepted and part of something, and the outsider whom is striving to be part of something that is not necessarily clear. The Europe we see developing today is a prime example of a ‘community’ of nations pushing for one identity. Cris Shore explores the idea that this very existing identity is one of the main culprits for the problem of integration of immigrant. â€Å"Identity is represented as a process of classification involving boundaries of inclusion and exclusion.† Shore goes on further to explore the terms European and non- European. Though there is no official definition for these terms, ‘ a more coherent applied definition can be seen emerging at the borders and boundaries of the new Europe.’ With the distinction of European and non-European groups becoming clear, so to is the distinction between the insider and the outsider. These terms are used to reiterate the fact that the immigrant is from outside, it is used to make the distinction between the group of ‘Us’ (national population) and ‘Them’ (the immigrant), and it has been used by Spaniards to remind themselves of what they are not. One must ask to what extent the integration of immigrants is a process of selection, and to what extent the national population influences this process. Nowadays the significance and relevance of being a member of a community has been devalued somewhat, as it is increasingly difficult to define this term. Calavita quotes Bauman and others as arguing, â€Å"that this kind of community is on the decline, as globalisation, with its collapsing cultural boundaries, and the diminishing significance of the nation-state, erodes its boundaries and disintegrates its ties, leaving little structure to the foundations of this group.† ‘The diminishing significance of the nation state’ refers to the developing ‘European identity’ the EU are pushing for today. This united centre requires the breaking down of national barriers to ensure full communication between nations in an effort for them to work together and be successful as one. Arguments put forward suggesting immigration is a ‘cultural problem’ because of its effect on the authenticity of Spanish culture, are unsound, as the very Europe that Spain forms part of, is doing just that. Considering immigration as a ‘problem,’ has severely affected the process of integration of immigrants in Spain. The real concern lies in the general public’s perception of immigrants. The strength of a nation’s perception is based on a sentiment cultivated over many years; can this national sentiment towards immigration be changed? It does not make sense to see a city or country as an integrated body of citizens, a group you can enter once you have completed cultural, economic requirements. It is the discussion of immigration as a problem, and the questioning of whether immigrants integrate or not that creates the phenomenon of immigration and puts such pressure on the social groups involved to form a position on the issue. When analysing the immigration issue in Spain, it should not be the question of whether the immigrants are a problem, or whether they are integrated or not, but what there role is in society.

Wiccan religion: The Goddess and Gods of the Wiccan Religion :: Essays Papers

Wiccan religion: The Goddess and Gods of the Wiccan Religion "Wicca is the most prevalent form of reconstructionist neo-paganism in the United States and is the pre-Christian spirituality of the Celtic peoples who resided in the British Isles and Brittany and on the western coast of France." Wicca is a religion based upon deep personal understanding of oneself and the multi-verse in which one resides. They work with the Gods and Goddess that call to us, and we develop relationships with them that help and support them in their evolution. Wicca is a spiritual path, a way of seeing the world and Divinity, and our relationship to it. They believe that Goddess is imminent in the world around us. Goddess permeates every living thing, and most of them define rocks, soil, water, air, fire, and the plant herself as living things. "The God of Wicca is the Horned God, the ancient God of Fertility: the God of the forest, flock, and field and also of the hunt." He is Lord of Life, and the Giver of Life, yet he is also Lord of Death and Resurrection. http://www.interlog.com/~spawn/gods.html Wicca is considered to be a radical faith in spite of significant numbers of goddess devotes who are extremely conservative in their lifestyles and the tenets they hold. The wiccan religion is not solely a women’s faith. While their are "women-only" groupings, and women-led, or women-predominant ones, there are just as many mixed gender groupings, in some of which men are dominant. There are also numerous solitaries, both women and men. In Wicca, practitioners notice the holy duality of the sexes in nature and in themselves, and worship the Divine as both God and the Goddess. Most modern Wiccans feel that while the God and Goddess are separate and equal, there are also two separate sides of the same coin: all in one. And all that they see, touch, feel, hear, or sense is Holy. The Goddess is known as "The Powerful Lady Mother" each of whom could appear in many, guises depending on the personal needs of the individual invoking them. The God is known as the "Horned God." The Horned God is the group soul of the hunted animal, invoked by the primitive shaman and the tribe. "The Goddess, whether Gentle Lady-Mother or thundering and Powerful Seductress has never really been broadly attached specifically to an animal form as much as the God was.

Baby Boomers Essay -- essays papers

Baby Boomers During the Great Depression and World War II many Americans delayed marrying and having children because of the poor economy. The number of marriages and births soared after the war. Many older couples who had delayed having children began having them when the war ended. This increase in births among both younger and older American couples created the Baby Boom Generation. This large group of people born in the U.S. from 1946 to 1964 amounted to 76 million children. Those born during this time make up approximately 36% of today’s population (Deutsch). What impact has this had on the economy? Read on to see how the baby boom generation has affected the economy and what will happen as they retire. This generation has had a huge impact on the economy due to its sheer size. At first there was a crunch at hospital maternity wards. When the boomers reached school age, schools became overcrowded, forcing towns to build additions. By the time they were entering senior high the cities and towns were expanding. New office buildings, hotels, apartment complexes and stores were springing up everywhere. When they reached college age, American Higher Education had to expand. Large enrollments along with inflation pushed college costs higher. When they started families of their own and became homeowners it drove real estate prices up. As they passed through the life cycle, these shortages soon became surpluses. An example being the collapse of the real estate market in the late1980’s (Sullivan). We can expect a large demand for retirement housing, elder care and finally the funeral industry as the Boomers continue their life cycle. Marketers have followed the boom generation for decades, producing items that appealed to them as children, teens and young adults. With more money in their pockets than time on their hands, today’s baby boomers are dining out at an all time high. Now it is people over the age of 40 who have the resources to purchase big-ticket items. Today the engine that is driving our economy and our stock market is due to the lopsided demographics present right now. The coming of age of discretionary spending is allowing people to buy that SUV, boat, computer, etc that would have been put off in the past (Income). The economy is sensitive to the Boomer generation’s desire for a luxury lifestyle. As they look toward retiremen... ...grams for children, while a new state agency was created to represent the needs and concerns of older citizens.† (Sullivan). The baby boom generation has had a profound effect on the American economy at each stage of their life starting with the demand created for goods, then filling the labor market. Now we’ll have to wait and see if their retirement will cause the doom predicted by some or create the marketplace godsend predicted by others. Bibliography: Buchner, Gail. â€Å"Demographics is Not Destiny†. Journal of Financial Planning. Institute of Certified Financial Planners 1999. Deutsche, Alex. Topical Study #51. 10 Oct. 2001 www.yardenicom/topical.asp Generation Gap to Create Jobs Turnaround. Sydney Morning Herald 4. 10 Oct. 2001 http://www.ncpa.org/pd/economy/econ 10.html Jackson, Gerard. â€Å"Will the Baby Boomers Cure Unemployment?† TNA News with Commentary. 9 Apr 2001. Peterson, Peter G. â€Å"Gray Down: How the Coming of Age Wave Will Transform America and the World†. 1999: 189-90. Sullivan, Teresa A. â€Å"Baby Boom Generation†. Discovery Channel School. 2 Oct. 2001. http://www.discoveryschool.com/homework.help/worldbook/atozhistory/b/040930.html

The opinions of Mill and Kant

Mill’s utilitarianism on Kant and Baxter’s argumentsIn John Stuart Mill’s arguments for utilitarianism, it can be observed that his concept of that which is â€Å"good† corresponds to the maximization of utility, or the promotion of the greatest happiness for the greatest number. Further, Mill maintains that right actions are those that primarily promote happiness while on the other hand actions that result to the reverse of happiness are wrong actions.At this point, it should be noted that Mill is arguing for the centrality of a form of consequentialism in his conception of actions and their resulting moral worth. That is, the moral worth or value of the actions of man can be assessed through the very consequences that they give rise to.As human conduct is essentially directed by the quest for happiness or utility, Mill elaborates further that the very directive of men to acquire happiness does not refer to individual happiness or the happiness of each pe rson taken singularly but rather to the collective happiness or the happiness for the greatest number of people. Among the numerous possible manifestations of such happiness that may be perceived, he further argues that the greatest happiness is to be sought after in connection to the greatest number of individuals. From this point, we are to analyze the arguments raised by Immanuel Kant and William Baxter on the aspect of rational agents juxtaposed with the issue of pollution.Both Kant and Baxter resort to the claim that men as rational agents should occupy the central role in ethical considerations. Prior to Baxter, Kant has already maintained that human beings, as agents imbued with and the capacity to reason, should not be treated as the means to possible or given ends. Rather what Kant strongly proposes is that human beings should be considered as the very ends themselves in the course of the actions of every individual. On the other hand, Baxter strongly argues in line with th e Kantian prescription for the acts of man. That is, man’s actions should be that which is what one ought to do.Mill will most likely tell us that Baxter’s conclusions do not eventually promote the greatest happiness for the greatest number of people in the immediate consequences of man’s actions towards the environment. Mill’s utilitarian principles will maintain that Baxter’s conclusions on the scope of environmental ethics merely prescribe what men ought to do.This prescription, when applied to several environmental issues such as man’s hunting for rare animals for the therapeutic values of their body parts, will most likely condemn the given example and other related instances. However, Mill will argue that, since the gathering of the body parts of such a rare animal will most likely contribute to the betterment and eventual happiness of the greatest number of human beings, the act in itself is a right act. The apparent consequences of s uch an action are deemed with the greatest amount of merit in classifying such action as morally right.For the most part, Mill might have instead argued for the claim that even if pollution becomes a result of the actions of man towards his environment, these same actions should be taken if it promotes the greatest degree of happiness for the greatest number of individuals as its consequence.Mill’s arguments cannot in any way directly support and uphold the ethical guidelines set forth by both Kant and Baxter in seeking the proper conduct for the status quo of the environment.Mill’s utilitarianism on Carr’s â€Å"Is Business Bluffing Ethical?†One essential feature of the utilitarian ethical doctrine is that its moral point of view rests firmly on the consequences of the actions made. That is, an action is then to be categorized as either good or bad depending on the consequence or result of the action intended. However, what differentiates the utilitarian principles from other ethical or moral tenet is that the former further qualifies the outcome of the actions as good in terms of maximum benefits conferred by the deed.In a sense, a good action, then, is one which has maximized benefits or advantages not to oneself but, more importantly, to the most number of individuals as well in the end. Thus, in essence, such doctrine of utilitarianism can be briefly summarized as one that seeks to establish â€Å"the greatest good for the greatest number.In adopting the principles being set forth by utilitarianism one is inclined to embrace the belief that the welfare of the majority is being taken with utmost concern and that, parallel to such aspect of utilitarianism, the greatest happiness or the benefit of the most number of people is seen as fitting enough to further accept the ethical theory of utilitarianism. The relative consequences in adopting these principles highlight a connection to the modern world inasmuch as the welfare of the majority rather than the individual is deemed to outweigh personal motives.Thus, the extent of Mill’s conception of the utilitarian doctrine will firmly hold that business bluffing is ethical so long as it promotes the good of the majority through the greatest good such an action is able to produce.For instance, when company executives are tasked to manage dealings or negotiations with fellow executives, customers, government authorities, labor groups, or the department heads of the same company the executives work in, they can resort to many forms of deception. The act of deceiving these â€Å"other† people in terms of its moral value can be analyzed through the apparent consequences such a conduct is able to make materialize.Especially in cases wherein the fate of the whole company or the status of the entire structure of the line of laborers is at stake, business bluffing is deemed right if and only if it is able to sustain the welfare of the general members of the company as its immediate consequence.Or even in the smallest of the departments in a business establishment, the relative gains of that small unit when taken as a whole should be reason enough, at least in Mill’s utilitarian approach, to pursue actions that will ensure the greatest gains for the greatest number in that department. These actions, in turn, are qualified as ethical and, hence, right under the utilitarian perspective as far as Carr’s notion on the extent of cases where the business â€Å"player† resorts to bluffing is concerned.On the other hand, the extent in which Mill will contradict Carr’s proposals for deception rests on the situation wherein bluffing does not promote the general welfare but instead advances the personal aims of the executive. In such cases, even if there are positive consequences for the businessman, the fact that the relative gains of the businessman for his own goes against the utilitarian principle of the maximizati on of the good. It ignores the crucial part of utilitarianism that prescribes actions which ensures the furtherance of the welfare of the majority.Thus, such an instance is essentially unethical inasmuch as it is not right as far as the tenets of utilitarianism are concerned.Kant’s ethical theory on DeJardins and Duska’s â€Å"Drug Testing in Employment†In order to analyze DeJardins and Duska’s claims in the article, an understanding of Kantian ethics should first be noted. Kantian ethics can be roughly started with the presumption that if we are to strictly follow the assertion that the goal of the lives of men is the attainment of happiness in general, then every individual will most likely be inclined to seek personal gratification so as to arrive at happiness.Nevertheless, the attainment of happiness is not entirely within the human capacity and that its actuality can be interpreted as a matter of chance that depends primarily on the varying capacitie s of man. No universal assurance on the attainment of happiness can then be seen. Consequently, by trying to remove cynicism and nihilism and by allowing the ethical norms of man to occupy the actions of all, it is necessary for these ethical doctrines to be unconditional such that there should be no exceptions and universal in the sense that these tenets should be applicable to every human being.Kant proceeds with his idea of the good will by defining it as a will that operates for the sake of duty and as a â€Å"good-in-itself†. For the most part, the concept of duty is central to the ethical precepts of Kant which he regards crucial by considering the difference that dwell between actions in accordance with duty and actions performed for the sake of duty. For Kant, the latter phrase is the only one that bears moral worth implying a greater moral worth in man’s actions that result from a person’s greater disinclination to act merely for the sake of duty. That is, if a person is motivated to do a certain act simply because one is entirely inclined to do such an act, then the act itself is considered to be bereft of moral worth.Duty for Kant is the inevitability or necessity of functioning out of a strict observation for laws that are universal. Consequently, the worth or value of the action done by the individual in terms of moral precepts is essentially drawn from the intention of the action thereby stressing the content of the actions in terms of intent as significant. This content can be further expressed in two manners. The first states that there are maxims or imperatives that stipulate that there are acts based on the desires of the individual. This is what Kant calls the hypothetical imperative. On the other hand, those which are based on reason and not merely dependent on one’s desires belong to the categorical imperative. The latter type deals with what ought to be done.All these can be roughly transposed and summarized in to Kant’s conception of the practical imperative that claims that one ought to act to treat human beings as ends in themselves and never merely as a means to any given end, whether the individual is the self or another person.Thus, in line with the arguments proposed by the authors of Drug testing in Employment, Kant will very well argue that drug testing among employees in companies is unethical for the reason that it treats the employees as mere objects or means in achieving the ends of set forth by the company. The delicate private information that are to be obtained from the drug tests, moreover, gives rise to the possibility that these information can be manipulated for sinister ploys even if the protection of these information is given due recognition.Moreover, as the authors of the article suggest, drug use is not always job relevant. If this is the case, then information concerning drug use is not relevant as well hence leading to the observation that drug tests are i rrelevant and that these only impair the centrality of man as the end for every action.The reason to these claims rests on two crucial aspects. First is that the practical imperative will not allow the treatment of the employees as schemes for the purpose of the upkeep of the employment status of the employer or of the company. Second is that drug testing undermines the rights of the employee thus, relegating our attention back to the first reason, undermining as well their existence as human beings and rational agents.ReferenceMill, J. S. (1863). What Utilitarianism Is. In Utilitarianism (pp. 4-16).

Why was Malthus wrong about Japan?

Today Japan is a highly developed first world country with a vast population and a booming economy. The demographic history of Japan and how it reached this renowned economic status has been the focus of much theorising and has engaged the minds of many demographers, economists and historians for centuries. Japan is unique in the way its population has changed and its economy has developed without the stimulus of overseas markets. It does not boast the best physical landscape, being 85 percent mountainous, and it is not well endowed in terms of resources. Despite these negative attributes however, Japan has developed, and to such an extent it can now boast one of the worlds leading economies. Indeed Japan was the only country outside the western world to have developed at a similar rate. In the 18th century a Swedish doctor, P. Thunberg commented on Japan, ‘Of all the countries that inhabit the three largest parts of the globe, the Japanese deserved to be ranked first, and to be compared with the Europeans. ‘ (Modern Japan, P. Duus. ) It stands to reason therefore that Japan's history merits such a wealth of discussion amongst academics. Part of Japan's success as a country has to be attributed to its longstanding political regime. For centuries Japan was an empire ruled by an emperor based at Kyoto. From the 12th century however Japan was governed by Shogun (military leaders) who oversaw the day-to-day life of the Japanese people. The emperor, in effect, was under house arrest, taking a submissive role being more of a spiritual leader to the people. The year 1600 saw an important event for the political governing of Japan. It was in this year that a battle (Sekigahara) established the supremacy of the Tokugawa family as ruling shoguns. From 1600 to 1868 this family ruled and these 268 years of Japan's history became known as the Tokugawa period. It is this period that is of fascination to many demographers as during this time Japan experienced stagnation in its population but it also seemed to be the onset of its economic success. From the early 18th century to the Meiji restoration in 1868 Japan's population stayed at around 33 million. It is this 150-year period of stagnation that is of interest to studiers of the demographic history of Japan. There is also much discussion as to whether the population as it was, was inextricably linked to economic growth or vice versa. Searches for explanation of population trends date back centuries. One of the earliest and probably the most famous explanation of observed population figures in the world in general, was put forward by the Rev. Thomas R. Malthus in the 18th century. In 1798 Malthus's ‘Essay on Population' was published, in which he wrote at length on past, present and future population trends of mankind. His most famous stance on population levels was that ‘population, when unchecked increases in geometrical ratio; subsistence only in an arithmetical ratio. (Malthusian Population Theory, McCleary. ) He believed that mans (sic) power to produce population is greater than his power to produce subsistence, thus meaning that that the population of a country was constantly held in check by misery and vice. From this a simple model is produced illustrating the point that if populations increases; food prices will increase; real income will decrease; and thus mortality will increase (figure 1. ) The ultimate check according to his works was the want of food, but this was never an immediate check except in the case of actual famines. The constant checks can be classified into two sets, preventative and positive. Positive checks are multifarious and include such components as exposure to the elements, epidemics, war, plagues, famines and extreme poverty. The preventative checks can be further sub-classified into vice and non-vice. According to Malthus however, there is only one preventative check that can be classified as vice and this is moral restraint. The consideration of moral restraint was a latter thought from Malthus, added to his ‘essay' in 1803. From this a more optimistic model of possibility was constructed (Fig 2. ) The two checks vary inversely from one another and can be in operation with varying affect according to the society in which there are operational. The situation as it was in Japan must have had some constituent that caused the observed trends in population. If Malthus's theory is believed to have been operational in Japan then some sort of check was holding the population at its stagnated rate. Japan, unlike Europe at the time was a closed system. Emigration was unheard of and likewise nobody entered the country. Internal migration was also low, although would not have affected population figures. This was mainly due the Tokugawa establishing a period of isolation, cutting Japan off from the rest of the trading world. In terms of Japans population this meant that migration was not responsible for the stagnation, therefore according to Malthus it must be due to high mortality rates and/or moral restraint alone. Malthus travelled to various European countries to study their population trends in order to supplement the work in his first essay. He did not however make it as far as Asia, but did manage to comment on Japan and China in his work. He tended to make generalisations about Japan based on his thoughts about China, believing that in both of these countries moral restraint was not practiced, as it was only adapted to Western Europe. His work led him to believe that in Japan and China marriage was universal and occurred at a very young age. Taking this into account, Malthus attributed positive checks on population to the cause of the stagnation the Tokugawa period. Included in the positive checks Malthus believed occurred in Japan was the act of infanticide or ‘mabiki', literally meaning ‘thinning out. ‘ Again he depicted Japan as being similar to China, but whether he was wrongly casting aspersions about Japan or whether infanticide was one of the components accountable for the population trends is another area that has been widely debated. Many people in this field of work since Malthus have devised various explanations as to the cause of Japans stagnation, and many have been curious as to whether Malthus was right about Japan. In order to deem Malthus right or wrong on this topic information on fertility and mortality levels as well as the marriage system and evidence of infanticide is needed. Early studiers of Japan's history found a way of gathering such information. During the Tokugawa period a registration system, known as Shumon Aratame Cho, was devised (mainly for tax reasons) that recorded births, deaths and other such information for villages in Japan. By studying, what were tantamount to an early form of census, family reconstitution is possible and a better idea of the overall demographic change at that time in Japan is given. Generations of population historians have performed village studies and different generations have varying ideas about the trend in population. The first generation of population historians believed Malthusian checks to be in action in Japan. Subsequent work has questioned this conclusion and many other avenues of thought have been opened up. Levels of fertility are related to marital patterns. This is an area that Malthus had decidedly definite views on in Japan. A control on marriage may have been responsible for the stagnation experienced between 1700 and 1850. This kind of population control may have been conducted in Japan in order to yield positive benefits from lower fertility levels, managed food prices and improved real incomes. Malthus believed that nuptuality in China and Japan was universal and occurred at a young age. He did not believe that controls on marriage could occur in Japan as outside Western Europe h thought that ‘the passion between the sexes is necessary' and cannot be overcome (Malthusian Population Theory, McCleary. From studies of nuptuality records (including components such as age at marrying and proportion of people ever married) it is shown that marriage was universal in Japan but was not at such an early age as it was in China. If nuptuality levels for Japan are compared with England and China for the same time period, then Japan falls somewhere in the middle (see fig 3. ) Universal marrying would suggest high levels of fertility but as discussed this was not the case in Tokugawa Japan. The issue of marrying at a later age can account for low levels of fertility, and possible reduced fecundability in women. Other factors can be attributed to fertility levels and many studies have been carried out in this area. T. C Smith, part of a later generation of population historians, conducted a study of a village which he named ‘Nakahara,' to give an overall general pattern of what was occurring in Japan at this time. Smith looked at fertility levels of the village and constructed fertility curves to examine the possibility of infanticide. The curves showed low levels of fertility, and were convex suggesting that there was an absence of birth control in the village. This adheres loosely to the standard levels of fertility at the time; although the figures in question were lower (fertility levels were naturally low in Tokugawa Japan, lower than pre-industrial Europe. ) Smith believed that the low levels of fertility were due not only to factors such spacing and lactational amenorrhea, as put forward by some of his contemporaries (e. g. Cornell), but also to the practice of infanticide. If Smith's study is consistent with the rest of Japan, then Malthus's theory would be true. However fertility curves alone do not prove beyond doubt that infanticide was occurring. L. Cornell believed the reasons for the low levels of fertility could be explained by factors other than infanticide. She believed the low level of fertility in general in Japan was a result of cultural rather than structural patterns. One of the main reasons put forward for this was the long lactation periods of Japanese mothers. It is biologically proven that the longer the lactation period after birth the harder it is for a couple to conceive their next child. This, Cornell attributes to the observed low fertility levels. Another reason put forward is migration patterns of males in villages at that time, causing a reduction in fecundability. Migration to castle towns, where employment had a large pulling power, was seasonal in villages and as a result of long periods of migration, fecundability decreased and fertility was kept at a low level. Cornell believed that these factors not deliberate controls on family size by the practice of infanticide as other academics believed, caused low levels of fertility in Japan. This was brought about by controls on society by over-riding cultural trends. Smith however, had evidence other than fertility curves to support his claim about infanticide. He studied the sex bias in families in Nakahara to add weight to his argument. He believed that the sex of the next child in a family was enforced by infanticide. Assumptions are easily made that this practice accords with the widely heard of folklore that males were the preferred sex in Japanese households, therefore one would expect the sex ratio to be male biased. However Smith found from his studies that the sex of the next child was not biased to males. He tabulated the evidence, which showed that in a family with predominantly male children, the next child was more likely to be female, and in families that had equal number of male and female children, the next child was most likely to be a male. The opposite was true in families with predominantly female children. However sex selectiveness was not found in other studies, for example in a study by Hayami, there was no evidence of sex selectiveness in families. Smith used this evidence to suggest that infanticide was a means of family limitation in Japan. Another piece evidence he found for the practice of infanticide was that small landholders had fewer children than large landholders, suggesting that family limitation was practiced as a long-term plan, so as to not put financial on the existing family and to maintain living standards. This idea has been rejected however by other authors such as Hanley and Yamamura who believed that infanticide was not only practised by peasants and poor families, but also by the rich who chose to limit their family in order to husband assets. Many authors speculate that infanticide was also practiced to limit the number of male heirs in a family and lessen the competition for family headship. On the matter of infanticide in Japan, contrasting ideas make it difficult to conclude if Malthus was correct in his assumption. However what can be concluded is that villages would have undoubtedly varied in their practices and beliefs. From a persons study of one village it would be wrong to conclude that infanticide was or was not practised in general in Japan. What would be a fair assumption would be to say that infanticide probably was operational in some areas and not in others. However it seems unlikely that infanticide alone, occurring in some areas would lead to the stagnated population that occurred in Japan at this time. Other checks on population must now be looked at to prove or disprove Malthus's theory. It is a given that fertility levels were low in Tokugawa Japan, so according to Malthus mortality must be a contributing factor of the population stagnation. From the Shumon Aratame Cho it is difficult to gain an idea of mortality levels, especially infant mortality. It has been estimated (Cornell) that by as late as 1926 a quarter of all deaths in Japan were infants. In the early Tokugawa period death rates were high and fluctuating. The life expectancy at birth at this time was in the low thirties. Epidemics as a constant check, proposed by Malthus, occurred regularly in Japan; however by about the 16th century the population was large enough to support such disasters. There were also some wide spread famines, particularly bad ones occurring in the 1730's, 1780's and the 1830's, which obviously would have made a dent in population figures. However there is a tendency for populations to recover quickly from famines, and many people would have simply moved away from the area. These two Malthusian checks seem not to have had a large impact on death rates, suggesting Malthus was wrong about Japan in this case in point. Death rates not associated with widespread disasters, must also be take into account. Mortality levels were generally higher in the cities, of which there were about 200 at this time, than in the countryside. An increase in the number of people living in cities could account for a high national mortality level; however improvements in the standard of living meant that death rates actually decreased in these areas. It seems that in this period of Japan's history contrasting factors were at work keeping the death rates at a constant level. Warfare decreased at the beginning of the Tokugawa period, lowering death rates; but epidemics were introduced, increasing the rates. Similarly death rates increased slightly as cities grew, but the improvements of living standards combated this increase. Malthus was correct in the sense that checks on population were occurring in Tokugawa Japan, however he did not account for the fact that Japan with a completely different culture and set of traditions from Europe, would have had different ‘checks' on the population working in opposition to the ones he proposed. A picture is now appearing of life in Tokugawa Japan. Fertility levels were low; mortality levels were high and fluctuating at the start of this period but then decreased towards the end. These two demographic variables can account in part for the population remaining constant for so many years, but it is not exactly in accordance with what Malthus thought about Japan. In reality Japan was much more akin to England in terms of its demography than China. Malthus was wrong in this case as well. He presumed Japan to be dissimilar to European countries and because of its locality in relation to China, to be much more alike it neighbouring country. Malthus had some general thoughts on population, not specific to Japan, but which are also wrong in Japans case. Malthus believed that ‘man (sic) does not like hard work', and this is why subsistence cannot take keep pace with population. This would ultimately lead to a positive check on population, which Malthus did believe was occurring in Japan. From the time of the Tokugawa period to present day, the people of Japan have shown to have been hardworking, which is represented in the level of their economic success today. From the 17th century agriculture was the main employment sector in Japan. During this century agriculture took off at a vast rate and began to keep pace with the growing number of mouths. As the population slowed and productivity continued to increase, the per capita food supply also increased. Small-scale cultivators dominated the agricultural economy in Tokugawa Japan, but this was only the starting point of the economic transitional change in Japan. By the late Tokugawa period, ‘proto-industrialsation', a term referring to the production of goods for distant markets was underway. New technologies spread and output of products such as soy sauce, bean paste and vegetable oil was a substantial proportion of all non-agricultural output. Proto-industialisation was concentrated in rural areas, which meant migration to large cities slowed, which in turn would have affected mortality rates, as mortality was consistently higher in these areas. In this case Malthus was also wrong in his assumptions about Japan. The population did not grow in a geometric ratio whilst the subsistence only grew in an arithmetical ratio. In fact quite the opposite occurred during the Tokugawa period in Japan. Overall it seems Malthus was wrong in most of his assumptions about Japan, such as universally low ages of marriage, moral restraint not being practised and widespread infanticide. However he did touch upon factors that operated in Japan as they did in many other countries at that time, such as family limitation and preventative checks affecting population numbers. In fact given the very little first hand knowledge Malthus actually knew about Japan, the only way his speculations could have been correct would have been purely by chance, which as highlighted is the not the case. Malthus was incorrect in his assumptions about the extent to which population-influencing factors occurred in Japan. Never the less he gave many population historians a foothold to further investigate the demographics of historic Japan.